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Testing Procedures in Anti-Doping

Anti-doping testing procedures are the backbone of clean sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) defines uniform standards that are implemented in cycling by the UCI and national anti-doping agencies. Modern testing procedures combine biological passports, targeted controls and innovative detection methods.

Fundamentals of Anti-Doping Testing Procedures

Anti-doping testing procedures in cycling follow the strict guidelines of the WADA Code and serve to protect clean athletes and the integrity of sport. The procedures include various types of tests that are conducted both during and outside of competitions.

Objectives of Doping Controls

The testing procedures pursue several central objectives:

  1. Deterrence - Deter potential doping offenders through close-knit controls
  2. Prevention - Prevent doping through transparent procedures
  3. Detection - Identify violations of anti-doping rules
  4. Fairness - Ensure fair competition conditions for all athletes
  5. Health Protection - Protect athletes from dangerous substances

Types of Doping Controls

Anti-doping testing procedures distinguish between different types of controls, each serving specific purposes.

Competition Controls

Competition controls (In-Competition Testing) take place during or immediately after races. At major cycling races like the Tour de France, several riders are tested daily.

Special Features:

  • Control takes place within 12 hours after race end
  • Winners and top finishers are tested as a rule
  • Additional random selection of other riders
  • Higher probability of stimulant detection

Training Controls

Training controls (Out-of-Competition Testing) are unannounced tests outside of competitions. These are considered particularly effective, as many doping substances are primarily used during training phases.

Characteristics:

  • No advance notice possible
  • Conducted at any time of day, including early morning
  • Athletes must report location via ADAMS system
  • Extended analysis spectrum possible

Targeted Controls

Targeted Testing is based on suspicious circumstances, tips or conspicuous parameters in the Biological Passport.

Triggers for targeted controls:

  • Conspicuous values in the Biological Passport
  • Tips from whistleblowers
  • Suspicious performance improvements
  • Connections to known doping networks
  • Anomalies in previous test results
Control Type
Timing
Advance Notice
Frequency (Top Athlete/Year)
Main Objective
Competition Control
During/after race
Yes (indirect)
15-25
Stimulants, acute manipulation
Training Control
Outside competition
No
25-40
EPO, anabolic steroids, growth hormones
Targeted Control
When suspicious
No
5-15
Specific substances when suspicious
Blood Passport Control
Regularly
Partially
8-12
Long-term monitoring of biological values

Process of a Doping Control

The process follows standardized international protocols to ensure the integrity of samples and the rights of athletes.

Step 1: Selection and Notification

The athlete is notified by a doping control officer (DCO). The notification must be made in person and is binding from this moment.

Important Rules:

  • Athlete must identify themselves immediately
  • Control cannot be postponed
  • Accompanying person may be called in
  • Athlete remains under constant observation
  • Fluid intake only allowed under supervision

Step 2: Going to the Control Station

The DCO accompanies the athlete to the doping control station. During competitions, this is usually located in close proximity to the finish area.

Step 3: Identity Verification and Form Check

At the control station, identity is verified and the official form is filled out.

✓ Name and date of birth
✓ Sport and discipline
✓ Competition or training control
✓ Medication intake (last 7 days)
✓ Dietary supplements
✓ Accompanying person (if present)
✓ Date and time of notification
✓ Athlete's signature

Step 4: Selection of Sample Container

The athlete selects one from several sealed sample container sets. This prevents manipulation.

Components of a sample set:

  • A-sample container (for initial analysis)
  • B-sample container (for possible retest)
  • Sealed packaging with number code
  • Documentation form with identical number

Step 5: Sample Collection

The actual sample collection takes place under direct observation to exclude manipulation.

Urine Sample:

  • Minimum amount: 90 ml
  • Observation of collection (same-sex DCO)
  • Athlete can provide multiple partial samples until minimum amount is reached
  • pH value and specific gravity are measured immediately

Blood Sample:

  • Collection by qualified medical personnel
  • Usual volume: 2-3 tubes of 3-6 ml each
  • For blood passport and substance detection
  • Storage at controlled temperature

Step 6: Sealing and Documentation

The athlete seals the samples themselves and verifies the code numbers.

  1. Division of urine sample into A and B sample
  2. Sealing with security seal
  3. Verification of code numbers for consistency
  4. Signature on documentation form
  5. Receipt of a copy for personal records

Step 7: Transport to Laboratory

The samples are transported in special cooling containers to a WADA-accredited laboratory.

Transport Standards:

  • Protected against manipulation
  • Temperature control (blood samples: 2-8°C)
  • Documented chain of custody
  • Maximum 36 hours until laboratory arrival

Analysis Techniques

WADA-accredited laboratories use state-of-the-art analysis techniques to detect prohibited substances.

Common Analysis Procedures

Procedure
Abbreviation
Application Area
Detection Limit
Detection Time
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
GC-MS
Anabolic steroids, stimulants
Nanogram range
Days to weeks
Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
LC-MS/MS
EPO, growth hormones, peptides
Picogram range
Hours to days
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
IRMS
Synthetic testosterone
Very precise
Weeks to months
Immunoassay
ELISA
Screening of large sample volumes
Microgram range
Variable
Electrophoresis
IEF/SDS-PAGE
EPO isoforms
Medium
Days

Biological Passport

The Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) is an innovative monitoring instrument that tracks individual biological values over longer periods.

Components of the Biological Passport:

Hematological Module:

  • Hemoglobin concentration
  • Hematocrit value
  • Reticulocyte proportion
  • OFF-Score (combined marker)

Steroid Profile Module:

  • Testosterone and epitestosterone
  • Other endogenous steroids
  • Ratios and metabolites

Biological Passport Impact:

Since introduction 2009: 65% less EPO abuse
Conspicuous profiles: 8-12% of professional athletes
Sanctions through ABP: Over 200 worldwide

Detection Window of Important Substances

The detection window describes the period in which a substance remains detectable after the last intake.

Substance
Detection Window Urine
Detection Window Blood
EPO
2-7 days
12-24 hours
Testosterone
2-6 months
24-48 hours
Anabolic steroids (oral)
2-8 weeks
1-3 days
Anabolic steroids (injected)
3-18 months
2-7 days
Growth hormone
24-48 hours
12-24 hours
Stimulants
2-5 days
12-36 hours

Athlete Rights and Obligations

Doping controls represent an intrusion into privacy, therefore the rights of athletes are clearly defined.

Rights During Control

  1. Right to Information - Complete explanation of the process
  2. Right to Accompanying Person - A trusted person may be present
  3. Right to Confidentiality - Discretion during the entire procedure
  4. Right to Documentation - Copy of all forms and codes
  5. Right to Delay - In justified cases (podium ceremony, press conference)
  6. Right to Medication Declaration - Disclosure of all preparations
  7. Right to B-Sample Analysis - In case of positive A-sample finding

Athlete Obligations

Whereabouts Obligation:

Athletes in the Registered Testing Pool (RTP) must report their location quarterly.

Tip:

The ADAMS system (Anti-Doping Administration and Management System) enables simple online management of location information. Apps for iOS and Android facilitate short-term updates on the go.

Documentation Obligation:

  • Declare all medications of the last 7 days
  • Declare dietary supplements
  • Disclose medical treatments
  • For TUE-required substances: Present Therapeutic Use Exemption

Consequences of Violation

Violation Type
First Violation
Second Violation
Third Violation
Whereabouts Failure
Warning
Warning
1-2 years ban
Control Refusal
2-4 years ban
Lifetime ban
-
Sample Manipulation
2-4 years ban
Lifetime ban
-
Positive Finding (non-specified substance)
4 years ban
Lifetime ban
-
Positive Finding (specified substance)
2 years ban (reducible)
4 years ban
Lifetime ban

Special Features in Cycling

Cycling has developed special anti-doping measures due to its history and specific requirements.

Close-Knit Control System

Professional cyclists are among the most frequently tested athletes worldwide.

Control Frequency for Top Riders:

  • 30-50 tests per year (competition + training)
  • 8-12 blood profile updates for Biological Passport
  • Additional targeted controls when suspicious
  • Team tests during stage races

UCI-Specific Regulations

The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) has introduced additional requirements:

No-Needle-Policy:

  • Prohibition of intravenous infusions except for medical necessity
  • Strict documentation requirement for all injections
  • Maximum infusion volume: 100 ml/12 hours

Nighttime Blood Controls:

  • Unannounced tests between 23:00 and 06:00
  • Checking blood values during recovery phases
  • Detection of nighttime manipulations

Team Responsibility

Teams can be held jointly responsible for doping violations by their riders.

Since 2019, the UCI can sanction teams for systematic doping: fines up to 1 million CHF, point deductions or even license revocation are possible. Teams must actively implement and demonstrate anti-doping measures.

Quality Assurance and Accreditation

The integrity of testing procedures is ensured through strict quality standards.

WADA Laboratory Accreditation

Only WADA-accredited laboratories may conduct anti-doping analyses.

Accreditation Requirements:

  • ISO/IEC 17025 Certification
  • WADA International Standard for Laboratories (ISL)
  • Regular Proficiency Tests
  • Annual inspections
  • Continuous staff training

Approximately 30 WADA-accredited laboratories exist worldwide, including Cologne (Germany), Lausanne (Switzerland) and Barcelona (Spain) as important centers for European cycling.

Chain of Custody

Complete documentation of the sample chain is crucial for evidentiary value.

Quality Control of Analysis Results

Laboratories conduct comprehensive quality controls:

  1. Negative Controls - Samples without substances for system verification
  2. Positive Controls - Samples with known substances for calibration
  3. Blind Samples - Anonymized samples for validation
  4. Duplicate Analyses - Double measurement for critical values
  5. Peer Review - Independent review of conspicuous findings

Innovative Developments

Anti-doping technology is continuously evolving.

Dried Blood Spot (DBS) Testing

An innovative method that simplifies the sample collection process.

Advantages:

  • Minimal blood requirement (few drops)
  • Simple storage at room temperature
  • Longer shelf life
  • More cost-effective transport
  • Extended use in training controls

Long-Term Storage for Retesting

Samples are stored for up to 10 years to be retrospectively analyzed with future methods.

Significance:

  • Detection of doping with improved analysis techniques
  • Deterrence through retrospective sanction risk
  • Fairness for clean athletes through later title corrections

Retesting:

2008 Beijing Olympics: 58 positive retests (2016-2017)
2012 London Olympics: 100+ positive retests (2016-2019)
Several Grand Tour winners subsequently convicted through retesting

Genetic Testing Technology

Future developments aim at detecting gene doping.

Research Areas:

  • Detection of genome editing (CRISPR/Cas9)
  • Detection of genetic markers for doping
  • Epigenetic changes through substances
  • RNA-based detection methods

Frequently Asked Questions About Testing Procedures

Can I refuse a doping control?

No. Refusing a control is treated like a positive doping finding and leads to a ban of 2-4 years.

What happens with a positive A-sample finding?

The athlete is informed and can request analysis of the B-sample. If the B-sample confirms the finding, a disciplinary procedure follows.

Do I have to be observed during the control?

Yes, during urine collection there is direct visual observation by a same-sex DCO to exclude manipulation.

What are Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUE)?

Medical exemptions for athletes who need prohibited substances for health reasons. Must be applied for and approved in advance.

How long are my samples stored?

Urine and blood samples are stored for up to 10 years at -20°C for possible retesting with improved methods.

Transparency and Trust Building

The credibility of the anti-doping system depends on transparency.

Publication of Test Results

Many anti-doping organizations publish annual statistics:

  • Number of tests conducted
  • Positive findings by substance classes
  • Sanctioned athletes
  • Whereabouts violations

UCI Anti-Doping Statistics 2023:

  • 18,547 tests conducted
  • 142 Analytical Findings (0.76%)
  • 89 Anti-Doping Rule Violations
  • Main substances: Anabolic steroids, corticosteroids, stimulants

Education and Prevention

Anti-doping organizations increasingly focus on education.

Educational Measures:

  • Mandatory online courses for licensed riders
  • Clean Sport seminars in youth teams
  • Medication counseling by association physicians
  • Apps for substance checking (e.g. Global DRO)
  • Whistleblower hotlines for tips

International Cooperation

Effective anti-doping work requires global cooperation.

Important Organizations

Organization
Role
Responsibility
WADA
Standard setting, coordination
Worldwide, all sports
UCI
Implementation in cycling
International, cycling only
NADA (Germany)
National tests, education
Germany, all sports
USADA
Tests, investigations
USA, all sports
CADF
Test planning, execution
Cycling Anti-Doping Foundation

Intelligence & Investigations

Modern anti-doping work combines testing with investigative investigation.

Intelligence-based Approaches:

  • Analysis of athlete data and behavior
  • Monitoring of suspicious networks
  • Cooperation with law enforcement agencies
  • Use of whistleblower information
  • Financial investigations of dealer rings

Frequently Asked Questions about Anti-Doping Testing Procedures

Question
Answer
What is the difference between competition controls and training controls?
Competition controls (In-Competition Testing) take place during or immediately after races, typically within 12 hours after the race ends. Winners and top finishers are tested as a rule, with additional random selection of other riders, and these tests focus especially on stimulants and acute manipulation. Training controls (Out-of-Competition Testing) are unannounced tests outside of competitions and are considered particularly effective because many doping substances are primarily used during training phases. They can occur at any time of day, including early morning, require athletes to report their location via the ADAMS system, and allow an extended analysis spectrum targeting substances such as EPO, anabolic steroids and growth hormones.
How does a standard doping control proceed from notification to the laboratory?
The process follows standardized international protocols. First, a doping control officer (DCO) notifies the athlete in person; from that moment the control is binding, the athlete must identify themselves immediately, remains under constant observation, and may only drink fluids under supervision. The DCO then accompanies the athlete to the control station, where identity is verified and an official form is completed covering medication of the last seven days, dietary supplements and other details. The athlete selects a sealed sample container set with A- and B-sample containers, provides urine (minimum 90 ml) and/or blood under observation, seals the samples themselves and verifies the code numbers. Finally, samples are transported in special cooling containers to a WADA-accredited laboratory with documented chain of custody and a maximum of 36 hours until laboratory arrival; blood samples must be kept at 2–8°C.
What is the Athlete Biological Passport and which markers does it monitor?
The Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) is a monitoring instrument that tracks individual biological values over longer periods rather than relying only on single positive findings. The hematological module covers hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, reticulocyte proportion and the OFF-Score as a combined marker. The steroid profile module monitors testosterone and epitestosterone, other endogenous steroids, and their ratios and metabolites. Since its introduction in 2009, the passport approach has been associated with about 65% less EPO abuse; conspicuous profiles appear in roughly 8–12% of professional athletes, and more than 200 sanctions worldwide have been linked to ABP findings. Blood passport controls for top athletes typically occur about 8–12 times per year for long-term monitoring.
What rights and obligations do athletes have during an anti-doping test?
Athletes have clearly defined rights because doping controls interfere with privacy. These include the right to a full explanation of the process, the right to an accompanying trusted person, confidentiality throughout the procedure, copies of all forms and codes, delay in justified cases such as a podium ceremony or press conference, declaration of all medications, and B-sample analysis if the A-sample is positive. Obligations include the whereabouts duty for athletes in the Registered Testing Pool (RTP), who must report their location quarterly via ADAMS, and documentation duties: declaring medications of the last seven days, dietary supplements, medical treatments, and presenting a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) when required. Refusing a control or manipulating a sample can lead to bans of two to four years on a first violation and a lifetime ban on a second.
Why are training and targeted controls especially important for detecting EPO and similar substances?
Many doping substances are primarily used during training phases, so unannounced out-of-competition tests are considered particularly effective. Training controls for top athletes typically occur 25–40 times per year and target EPO, anabolic steroids and growth hormones, with no advance notice possible. Targeted testing is triggered by suspicious Biological Passport values, whistleblower tips, suspicious performance improvements, links to known doping networks or anomalies in previous results, and usually adds another 5–15 controls per year focused on specific substances. Detection windows underline the timing challenge: EPO remains detectable in urine for about 2–7 days but only 12–24 hours in blood, while growth hormone is detectable for only about 24–48 hours in urine and 12–24 hours in blood, so unannounced testing outside competition is essential.
What UCI-specific anti-doping measures apply in cycling beyond the WADA Code?
Professional cyclists are among the most frequently tested athletes worldwide, with top riders often facing 30–50 tests per year combining competition and training controls, plus 8–12 blood profile updates for the Biological Passport and additional targeted or team tests during stage races. The UCI’s No-Needle Policy prohibits intravenous infusions except for medical necessity, requires strict documentation of all injections, and limits infusion volume to a maximum of 100 ml within 12 hours. Nighttime blood controls can take place unannounced between 23:00 and 06:00 to check blood values during recovery phases and detect nighttime manipulations. Since 2019, teams can also be held jointly responsible for systematic doping, with possible fines of up to 1 million CHF, point deductions or license revocation if they fail to implement and demonstrate anti-doping measures.
How are sample integrity and analysis quality ensured from collection to retesting?
Only WADA-accredited laboratories may conduct anti-doping analyses; accreditation requires ISO/IEC 17025 certification, compliance with the WADA International Standard for Laboratories (ISL), regular proficiency tests, annual inspections and continuous staff training. About 30 such laboratories exist worldwide, including Cologne, Lausanne and Barcelona as important European cycling centers. A documented chain of custody preserves evidentiary value during transport, while laboratories use negative and positive controls, blind samples, duplicate analyses and peer review of conspicuous findings. Analytical methods such as GC-MS, LC-MS/MS, IRMS, ELISA and electrophoresis cover different substance classes and detection limits. Samples can also be stored for up to 10 years for retrospective retesting with improved methods, as illustrated by dozens of positive retests from the 2008 Beijing Olympics years later.